Constitution Day 2024: Title IX and Gender Equity

U.S. Supreme Court Cases Interpreting Title IX

• Cannon v. University of Chicago, 441 U.S. 677 (1979): Holding that Title IX gives an implied right of private action.
   
• O'Connor v. Board of Education, 449 U.S. 1301 (1980): Holding that it is reasonable under Title IX to prohibit a female student from participating on a male team in a contact sport when there is also a women's team.
   
• Grove City College v. Bell, 465 U.S. 555 (1984): Holding that Title IX applies to private schools that have students who receive federally-funded scholarships. However, the Court rejected an institution-wide application of Title IX, holding that only specific programs receiving federal funds were subject to Title IX coverage and sanctions.
   
• Franklin v. Gwinnett County Public Schools et al., 503 U.S. 60 (1992): Holding that monetary relief is available under Title IX.
   
• Davis v. Monroe County Bd. of Ed., 526 U.S. 629 (1999): Holding that a private Title IX damages action may lie against a school board in cases of student-on-student harassment, but only where the funding recipient is deliberately indifferent to sexual harassment, of which the recipient has actual knowledge, and that harassment is so severe, pervasive, and objectively offensive that it can be said to deprive the victims of access to the educational opportunities or benefits provided by the school.
   
• Jackson v. Birmingham Bd. of Ed., 544 U.S. 167 (2005): Holding that retaliation against a person because that person has complained of sex discrimination is a form of intentional sex discrimination encompassed by Title IX.

Overviews and Histories

• The 14th Amendment and the Evolution of Title IX: A student activity resource from the Administrative Office of the US Courts that tracks the evolution of Title IX using the Supreme Court’s 1984 decision in Grove City College v. Bell as a touchstone.

• Equal Access to Education: Forty Years of Title IX (PDF): A 2012 report by the Department of Justice (DOJ) on the history, impact, and future of Title IX, as well as a summary of as DOJ's enforcement and compliance activities.
   
• First Woman of Color in Congress: A Resource Guide for the Patsy T. Mink Papers--Title IX Overview: Information concerning materials that can be found within the Manuscript Division's Patsy T. Mink Papers that document her involvement with the passage of Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 and Women's Educational Equity Act (WEEA) in 1974.
   
• A Forgotten History: The Women who Brought Us Title IX External: Oral histories from noted activists in the early 1970s who took up the cause against sex discrimination in education.
   
• Forty Years and Counting: The Triumphs of Title IX: Video recording and transcript of hearing on the 40th anniversary of Title IX before the Senate Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions Committee on Tuesday, June 19, 2012.
   
• History of Title IX External: From the Women's Sports Foundation, a history of Title IX from its enactment in 1972 to the present.
   
• Title IX Resources: Resources, timeline, and information on Title IX from the National Federation of State High School Associations.

Thank you to the Library of Congress and their "Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972: Resources from the Law Library" LibGuide for the resources on this page.